During the course of the 1960s the realization that modernization was necessary dawned in several sectors of German society, for example, education, research, labor and health care. This challenge was actively addressed by the social democratic/liberal coalition which came to power in 1969. This led to the formulation of a program calling for research and action on humanization of working life introduced by the Federal German government in 1974. Prior to this, an amendment to the Works Council Constitution Act passed in 1972 (Sections 90 and 91 - Workplace, work process, work environment) required employers to organize their work systems in accordance with “validated scientific knowledge on humanized work design.” These politically-driven reforms of the country’s internal structures brought enormous growth in the significance of labor science and it is, consequently, not surprising that sociologist Friedrich Fürstenberg published his proposals Planning for Interdisciplinarity in Labor Science in 1975. These proposals are still regarded as an important theoretical template and are reviewed in detail in this article (3.). However, as they were not so much a genuine beginning, but rather a revival of existing theories, the article first examines the historical context (2.). This reveals that the principles of interdisciplinarity formulated by sociologist Max Weber and, in particular, his joint studies with the Social Policy Association on working and living conditions of industrial workers are still fully valid. His thoughts on this subject were adopted in many cases by labor scientists in the 1920s. Although interdisciplinarity was elevated to program level during the National Socialist era, the idea actually withered and became a meaningless phrase during that period. The collapse of this system led to temporary loss of the original studies, which were only rediscovered several years later. The debate was revived in the 1970s, mainly as a result of Fürstenberg’s publication, which pointed out, among other things, that closer attention to sociology and other social sciences is an essential prerequisite for further development of interdisciplinary cooperation in the field of labor science. This principle, the validity of which is illustrated in detail by Fürstenberg, was integrated into the official work humanization program in the form of basic research and accompanying sociological research projects. However, many labor scientists who had welcomed the interdisciplinary approach and the accompanying research projects soon dissociated themselves from the plans for integration of sociology into labor science at peer level (4.). This opposition, spearheaded mainly by labor scientists with academic backgrounds in natural sciences and engineering, was fiercely criticized by sociologists and triggered a controversy that lasted well into the 1980s. The debate on interdisciplinarity in labor science has been going on, with interruptions, for close on one hundred years and has now reached a high scientific level with a large number of topical contributions (5). The high quality of these contributions is, in my opinion, attributable to the preceding high profile and in some cases, heated and factious debate, which was moreover conducted in a spirit that reveals awareness of not only its theoretical, but also its practical significance. After all, labor science is first and foremost an applied science. This contribution closes with an appeal to researchers to respond to this call for interdisciplinarity in some of their projects, thereby helping to achieve further progress, both theoretical and practical, in this important field. (6).

Practical Relevance

The actual state of the discussion on interdisciplinarity is compared to the level of reflection in the discourses of the seventies. Subsequent recommendations for the future research are deduced.

On the preconditions of humane working conditions in the postindustrial society

Author: Thomas Sukopp

Keywords: Ergonomics, homo oeconomicus, Interdiciplinarity, concept of man, humane working conditions

Summary

Interdisciplinary ergonomics is often challenged but has been supported programmatically since the 1970s. At least two rationales motivate interdisciplinary ergonomics: First, it can be assumed that ergonomics is intrinsically interdisciplinary. Second, many complex approaches in ergonomics integrate the methods and results of disciplines such as industrial sociology, economics, business administration and many more. Even if ergonomics is essentially interdisciplinary, its ongoing diversity and heterogeneity motivate a stronger focus on how to practice it in a genuinely interdisciplinary manner. From a philosophical point of view, one should first clarify what interdisciplinarity, as a concept which can be made fruitful for ergonomics, means (Chapter 1). It is striking that many of the issues at stake according to their self-conception can be approached intrinsically in an interdisciplinary manner only. The demand for humane working conditions moves the question of what “dignity” means into the foreground (Chapter 2.1). I put forward an argument for a possible ideologically neutral worldview, a feasible and simultaneously ambitious notion of dignity that sets only minimal anthropological preconditions. The suggested approach is comparatively advantageous since it avoids restrictions of Christian-essentialist definitions of “dignity“. However one may grasp humane work, the necessity to justify the right to work remains (2.2). It is argued that we should not only plead for “humane work” because what “humane” means is highly controversial, as is the topic of how we can meet the requirements for e.g. “humane working conditions”. The final chapter (3) deals with two important theories that are often postulated in pertinent debates on humane working conditions, but are not always explicitly picked out as central themes. From a trade union point of view, liberalism is rather derogatory in terms of supporting humane working conditions (3.1). I contradict this critique. One does not have to be a proponent of liberalism to accept some of its advantages in comparison with communism or socialism: liberalism might be humanism if it is able to promote economic welfare. This economic welfare should mean – from a liberalistic point of view – primarily material welfare for human beings. Thus liberalism puts forward necessary conditions for a flourishing society, namely that only productive work enables a sustained improvement of working conditions. However this argumentation leaves aside arguments against the counter-productive effects – in terms of humane working conditions – of unchecked capitalism. The model of a homo oeconomicus, which is affirmatively evaluated at least in neoliberal circles, is based on a concept of man that is rejected (3.2). We find overwhelming evidence for some argumentative weaknesses of homo oeconomicus, e.g. advocated by Martha Nussbaum, John Rawls or Amartya Sen. In short, the reduction of action theory to a simple model of incentives is misleading. Human beings neither act solely according to a rational choice theory nor behave as purely egoistic individuals. A more realistic idea of man considers that human beings act according to their ideas of social welfare, in manifold relationships to other people. To combine the model of homo oeconomicus with a rational choice theory implies a narrow-minded model of rationality: Assuming that acting rationally means carrying out similar actions in similar situations is not justified. For example, to choose – in similar situations – at first option A, then to opt for doing B, and finally to return to option A is not per se irrational (Amartya Sen). Finally, utilitarianism in accordance with the model of homo oeconomicus tends to consolidate a formal notion of distributive justice and helps to increase unfair social differences.

Practical Relevance

The paper investigates how ergonomic research calls for interdisciplinary work. It is brought forward a feasible and ambitious notion of dignity and asked for an idea of man that an interdisciplinary ergonomics presupposes.

Labour productivity: more than an essential category of labour economics and macroeconomics

Author: Thomas Weiß

Keywords: Labour economics, labour productivity, capital productivity, labour unit costs, profit unit costs

Summary

In classical economics labour was a central category. Meanwhile beside labour other factors of production, especially capital, are of equal importance, and individual utility maximization is regarded as the driver of economic development. However, if economic problems are addressed, the discussion concentrates on labour. In Germany, for instance, a demographical decline in the labour supply is regarded as a political issue to be coped with by, for instance, raising the age of applicability for old age security or by encouraging labour immigration. Raising labour productivity by increasing the capital stock per worker is not recognized as an equally possible solution. With respect to capital, the official view is often surprisingly pessimistic, given the importance of capital as a factor of production in mainstream economics. There is also often a narrow view on business economics, whereas the role human activity can play inside civil society during leisure time is neclected. Further, in view of real developments, this focus on labour as a possible centre of economic problems cannot be justified. If value creation, productivity and costs of production are analysed, problems come from capital, the other factor of production, not from labour. In the major industrial countries - USA, Germany, and Japan - the wage share and real unit labour costs have declined, and nominal unit labour costs were not the driver of price increases contrary to nominal profit unit costs. Long term interest rates, which are usually interpreted as the remuneration of capital as a factor of production have been for decades above the rate of growth of the economy, which is a violation of the Golden Rule of Accumulation. The political conclusion is, that a narrow focus on free markets, as the most efficient framework for economic development, and business economics should be replaced by taking structural and industrial policy measures and by giving the demand side equal importance to insure balanced growth.

Practical Relevance

In view of the relatively moderate long-term upward trend in labour-related costs it would be advisable for economic policy to focus more actively on stimulation of demand. Short-term cost-cutting is not an effective tool for rectifying long-term deficiencies in structural trends. More structural and political action in the industrial sector and stronger efforts to promote demand are needed. More attention should be paid to modification of the immediate economic framework in a way that will influence the welfare aspects of the general public’s pattern of life, especially its use of so-called leisure time.

Extended Profitability Appraisal (EPA) – A first step toward interdisciplinary planning of innovations

Author: Günter Neubauer und Hartmut Wächter

Keywords: Evaluation of labour science, labour science (ergonomics) research, extended efficiency calculation of working systems, interscientific, planning of innovations (p. of investment)

Summary

The German Society for Labor Science sees its social role in holistic terms as the ongoing refinement and forward-looking coordination of technology, work organization and job design based on environmentally compatible and humane criteria and with due allowance for profitable operation. Conventional methods of economic appraisal have been confined to measurement of technical and financial aspects of worker productivity and collection of data that can be quantified in monetary terms. The procedures for more broadly-based economic appraisal developed under the HdA program have helped to erode the prejudice that human labor is merely a cost factor and focused attention on the medium- and long-term benefits obtainable from their sophisticated innovations. By criticizing and pointing up the errors resulting from the cost fixation of industrial controllers and the engineers’ obsession with technical productivity, EPA has played a significant role in the approach to job design, but is equally important for its contribution to ongoing refinement of interdisciplinary planning of innovations and its testing in practice. Industrial support for EPA withered and died in the 1990s, when the German employers’ associations terminated their cooperation on progress toward a consensus on better reconciliation of profitability considerations with humanized work design. Profitability and humanization of work were no longer compatible objectives. The failure of deregulation and market radicalism has rekindled interest in improvement of working conditions and quality of life and led to the rediscovery of EPA.

Practical Relevance

This contribution is a plea for broader use of existing EPA procedures that have proved their practical worth in industrial planning and decision- making processes. It is also a request addressed to researchers in labor science to revive their interest in EPA and to the entities funding that research.

Vol. 2 - 2011

Escaping Drowsiness: Models, Measures and Countermeasures

Author: Jarek Krajewski, Inga Mühlenbrock, Sebastian Schnieder, Kai Seiler

Keywords: Drowsiness, Sleepiness, Recovery, Measures, Countermeasures

Summary

Sleepiness plays an important role within individual, organizational and economical contexts, especially when focusing on safety, performance or quality of life. Precise measurement of fatigue and sleepiness in professional and private life allows determining the individual’s need for action and serve as integral parts of automated fatigue countermeasure devices. A short overview is given on causes, side effects, measurement instruments and countermeasures of sleepiness.

Sleepiness incorporates physiological modifications within the central nervous system and the autonomic nervous system (i.e. cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, respiratory, metabolic or endocrinologic changes). Psychological consequences affect cognitive (i.e. perception, central processing, psychomotor functions), emotional (irritability, dejection), motivational (loss of motivation, decline of aspiration level, enhancement of strain) and behavioral systems (tendency to fall asleep, posture balance, (facial) expression). These changes can be captured within fit-for-duty tests or monitoring approaches. The most frequently used experimental methods are the pupillographic sleepiness test (PST), psychomotor vigilance task (PVT), power spectral analysis of EEG-activity, multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) and Eye lid Movement (e.g. PERCLOS). Related to organizational workstations, automatic measuring systems could include a fusion of bio-, speech and video-signal-based components (i.e. analysis of mouse movements, keyboard input, phonetic voice changes and video-based detection of eye, lid and head movements).

Below, current sleepiness countermeasures are divided into behavior-oriented (stimulating and deactivating) and situational-oriented ones. Sleepiness can be reduced by stimulation, mediated either by an increased arousal level (wake drive), pharmacologically (caffeine, nicotine, amphetamine, modafinil) or by a stimulating situation (light, exercise, music). Another possibility to reduced the sleep drive is deactivation which depends on several factors like mental, emotional or energetic demands of the activity, basic conditions, people involved or local aspects as surrounding stressors and stimulation (volume, vibration, brightness, smell).

Activities that reduce sleepiness most apparently are napping episodes (5-60 min) that reach sleeping stadium 2. In case that sleeping is unlikely because of high arousal levels (strain, worries, irritation, caffeine stimulation), deep relaxation methods (i.e. progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training) are effective recovery approaches because of automatically oriented attention given by monotonous and repeated stimuli. Often, low spatial-infrastructural conditions and conflicting organisational norms interfere with a successful organisational implementation of napping and deep relaxation methods.

Furthermore, an explanatory model simulates the process of intention formation regarding napping. The model includes output values (recovery infrastructure and culture, psycho-physiological need for recovery, recovery readiness and ability), decision-making and subsequent intention building processes. Immediately relevant for the actual decision-making process is an internal cost-benefit-analysis, weight anticipated recovery effects, social norms, consequences for self-image and other effort-related side effects. The subsequent intention concerning sleepiness countermeasures leads to specific outcomes (stimulation- and/ or deactivation-based recovery with/ without substance use, to whom, where, etc.?).

Sleepiness reduction that is deactivation-based can be effectively supported by automatic sleepiness measures, which help to objectively determine the efficient time point of starting the nap. Supplementary, the individual is able to recognise and admit its sleepiness by a reputed, objective and reliable technology-based system (‘I do not convince myself to be sleepy, but I do have an objective unbiased sleepiness value – the system recommends a 20 minute nap’). In order to support a selection of contermeasures that is more effectiveness-based than a spirit of time, a holistic rational analysis of stimulants and especially the implementation and evaluation of naps and deep relaxation breaks within the organisational context will be relevant and sensible though.

Practical Relevance

Insights of sleep medicine for the working environment

Author: Thorsten Schäfer

Keywords: Sleep disorders, sleep-related breathing disorders, excessive daytime sleepiness, night and shift work

Summary

Sleep is a very complex activity of the brain. The alteration of sleep and wakefulness is one of the most prominent circadian rhythms, organized by the internal clock and modulated by widespread neurotransmitter systems and hormones that regulate the rest-activity cycles of the brain. Sleep is characterized by a sequence of sleep states of light, deep and REM sleep.

The quality of sleep is measured by its restorative effect and the behavior during wakefulness. Non-restorative sleep results in excessive daytime sleepiness, which in turn leads to significant performance deficits, reduced powers of concentration and increased risk of accidents. Certain sleep disorders may also cause severe health problems due to cardiovascular injury. The object of sleep medicine is an appropriate differential diagnosis and therapy. The International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD-2) summarizes 81 diagnoses in 8 groups, which are to be considered here. The S3-guideline “Non-restorative Sleep” of the German Society for Sleep Research and Sleep Medicine (DGSM) proposes an algorithm for the diagnostic and therapeutic approach.

The most relevant medical disorders with respect to occupational medicine include different forms of insomnia and sleep-related breathing disorders. There is a high prevalence of these disorders in the working population and they result in a significant impairment of performance. Recent investigations indicate that about 23% of the employees are affected by difficulties in initiating and maintaining sleep accompanied by negative ratings of general health and working ability. The prevalence of a moderate to severe sleep apnea syndrome is estimated to be at least 6% for adults contributing to significant morbidity.

Furthermore, the expansion of shift and night work in the working world provokes sleep disturbances in otherwise healthy people. In Germany, more than 15% of the working population is involved in work beyond the normal times. Night work causes a desynchronization of the internal circadian rhythms and the external demands of physical and mental activity. The time shift by itself induces difficulties to fall asleep and to maintain sleep. But work at night may also increase the risk for gastrointestinal and metabolic disorders, cardiovascular disease and probably breast cancer in women.

An important strategy for the prevention of unwanted side effects is the optimization of the working conditions based on a close cooperation between sleep medicine and occupational medicine (see S1-guideline “Night and Shift Work” of the German Society for Occupational and Environmental Medicine, DGAUM).

Sleepiness at the workplace is an important indicator of non-restorative sleep, which should be medically investigated and treated in order to avoid health risks and impairments of performance. There are a lot of recommendations for the organization of shift work. Future research, however, is necessary to identify risk factors and side effects of working conditions and to prove the effectiveness of preventive measures especially in the context of shift work.

Practical Relevance

Restorative sleep, workload and performance are closely linked. Sensitivity in the work and social environment and in self-assessment is required regarding the symptoms of excessive daytime sleepiness as a sign of non-restorative sleep, so that sleep medical diagnosis, advice and therapy can be claimed in time. Preventive approaches, such as the chronobiologically based organization of shift work, should be tested for effectiveness and implemented consistently.

(Neuro)biological aspects of regeneration: Relaxation as a means of stress regulation

Author: Tobias Esch

Keywords: Mind-Body Medicine, Stress, Autoregulation, Relaxation, Self-Management, Stress Management, Regeneration, Neurobiology

Summary

Over the last 200 years, relaxation and regeneration periods have been expelled from the work environments or daily work routines and delegated to leisure and “recreational” times. This was due, in parts, to modern labor conditions, where productivity and short-term outcome effects determined the organizational structure of labor, and long-term health maintenance or sustainability of the work force became less important: Mobile employees, for example, became increasingly replaceable and workers who spent some time “doing nothing”, while supposedly working, where unproductive, as it seemed – at least in the short run. However, where relaxation was still “allowed”, i.e., outside work, ritualized practices, such as religious procedures (e.g., prayer, churchgoing, or chanting) or regular gatherings with friends or family, including regeneration, slowly disappeared or simply became more difficult to practice due to privacy or separation or the new phenomenon of “consumption and leisure stress”, characterized, e.g., by an excess of social liabilities and opportunities. Consequently, less people used the natural potential of ritualized relaxation or “decelerating” group meetings as an effective means of stress reduction and recovery. As a result, we now putatively experience a steepening increment of (subjective) stress or a diminution of general stress coping capabilities. Accordingly, diseases and stress-associated ailments seem to accumulate almost everywhere. However, stress is a natural phenomenon that is not pathological in itself: It can be examined from different angles and derivations, but we continuously find an astonishing biological stress management potential in each individual, representing, in a sense, a common ground or denominator of our self-healing capabilities, and this physiological potential stems from our ability to auto-/self-regulate stress and the daily challenges we encounter, including work. Hence, this healthy potential is imbedded in our central nervous system and can be professionally used and trained for better coping and living with stress.

Critical ingredients of almost every such stress management concept are formal relaxation techniques. Relaxation techniques, in a scientific sense, are procedures that elicit the so-called “relaxation response”, which is the physiological counter-player of stress or the biological stress response. These techniques are usually easy to learn, quickly rewarding by giving pleasure and “wellness” (mentally and physically), and they can be kept at almost no costs in the daily self-management or self-care regiments. Meanwhile, many studies have proved their effectiveness in a broad array of conditions and stress-associated diseases. From the medical perspective, however, stress management and relaxation techniques seem to be especially useful in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular risks and illnesses (e.g., hypertension), in addition to some relevant neuro-psychiatric conditions (e.g., depression, anxiety, pain syndromes).

Meditation techniques also belong to the repertoire of relaxation response methods. However, to many people the word “meditation” elicits less relaxation but more feelings of discomfort and lack of understanding or even defense. While looking more deeply into the various meditation procedures and their underlying physiology, however, one will find striking parallels and similarities throughout diverse cultures: It almost seems as if the various rituals and techniques, which principally have the potential to elicit the health-promoting relaxation response, as illustrated, have “intentionally” slipped into cultural evolution (independent of the actual region of its origin or emergence or its specific content), not least because of the simple fact that they are healthy.

When one tries to scientifically examine the core or common ground of diverse meditation practices, a rather simple meditation instruction turns up, i.e., proto-type. In this way, that is, by scientific reductionism, the Harvard cardiologist Herbert Benson more or less accidentally discovered the relaxation response in the 1970s and, as a consequence, founded the Mind/Body Medical Institute at Harvard Medical School. Moreover, by this means, he also established the new medical field of “mind-body medicine”, which has become increasingly popular over the last 15 years, especially in the United States’ medical community. Today, in Germany too, mind-body medicine is of growing importance in academic medicine, e.g., medical universities and courses, usually in connection with integrative or evidence-based complementary medicine. Yet, it actually is a rather implicit and “non-academic” matter of course: The use, re-discovery, and further development of our inner resources and self-help potentials and the necessity to incorporate this capacity for regeneration and health maintenance into our daily routines (particularly in the midst of a stressful work, leisure and social life) has to become applicable and tangible again – and therefore we simply need to re-train it.

Current science is examining the underlying mechanisms and molecular pathways (and even the genetic fit) of the relaxation response: On the receptor level, the autoregulatory molecule nitric oxide and its signaling pathways seem to play a role in the mediation of relaxation’s health-promoting potentials. For example, nitric oxide seems to “desensitize" the organism to stress and reduces a hyper-reactivity against stress hormones by decreasing their molecular impact. In addition, endocannabinoids and just recently detected endogenous morphine pathways apparently are of importance here. With regard to “hardware”, the critical regions of interest that steer and “supervise” the said processes seem to lie within the brain, particularly within a deep brain structure called “limbic system”, also the “emotional brain”. This is the place where reward and motivation are imbedded and created by circulatory neural activation patterns. Hence, independently of the effectiveness and molecular documentation of the pathways involved in the relaxation response, it is important to consider that relaxation is usually practiced in combination with other stress management techniques, such as exercise or positive communication (i.e., positive psychology or cognitive behavioral interventions). Thus, today, relaxation is a core ingredient of complex or multi-component therapy and prevention strategies (e.g., mind-body medical stress reduction – MBMSR), and as part of this it gets clinically evaluated. And the results, so far, are quite straightforward: Relaxation techniques are cost-saving and easy to apply, they actively integrate self-help and self-healing capacities into health maintenance and could be – not only out of these reasons – a meaningful and helpful supplement to healthy life-styles.

Practical Relevance

Short daily relaxation periods of only 20 minutes are effective means of reducing stress. Yet, not only is the psycho-mental stress resistance improved through active regeneration, but also physical ailments and exhaustion are reduced, and even manifest diseases prevented. Finally, efficiency, performance and the use of mental capacities are facilitated. Hence, work routines should certainly incorporate this endogenous and “free” resource.

Working on Sundays - effects on safety, health, and work-life balance

Author: Anna Wirtz, Friedhelm Nachreiner, Katharina Rolfes

Keywords: Working hours, shift work, social rhythm, recovery, accident risk

Summary

During the last decades the number of employees working in flexible and / or unsocial hours (e.g., on evenings and weekends) has substantially increased. However, working on weekends can reduce both recovery time and the amount of socially valuable hours. This is due to the fact that the social rhythm in our society remained as a stable pattern over the last 30 years, describing our society as an evening and weekend society, despite all attempts towards a 7x24 hours society. According to this rhythm, the utility of time for social and leisure activities is usually rated higher in the evenings and on weekends, with the highest values on Sundays. Thus, working on Sundays should lead to severe impairments to psychosocial well-being, to a reduction in the quality of and time for recovery from work-related strain, as well as to a reduction of social commitments. However, only very few studies have addressed possible safety, health, and social effects of work on Sundays yet. Furthermore, the effects of working on Sundays and working in shifts, which often includes work on Sundays, have not been separated yet. The objectives of our study were therefore to investigate in two large and representative samples of the European workforce, whether working on Sundays increases the risk of impairments to (1) occupational safety, e.g. as expressed in the incidence of accidents, (2) general health, and (3) work-life balance, while controlling for different important confounders.

Two representative samples of employed workers in the 15 original member states of the European Union served as the data base for a cross-sectional analysis. The samples were collected via face-to-face interviews in the year 2000 (EU 2000) and 2005 (EU 2005) and contained data of n=17,910 and n=12,288 individuals in 2000 and 2005, respectively. The surveys included questions on the working conditions (e.g., different physical and mental work load components, extent of autonomy in the workplace), several work schedule characteristics, and the individual personal situation (demographic information, time lost due to an occupational accident in the last 12 months, subjective health impairments, subjective compatibility between working hours and private/leisure commitments as an indicator of the work-life balance (WLB)).

The increases in the risks of occupational accidents, health impairments, and decreases in WLB due to work on Sundays were calculated using analysis of variance and logistic regression models, controlling for potential confounders, such as demographic characteristics, work load intensity, autonomy, shift work, and other work schedule components (working on at least 1 Saturday, Sunday, evening, and/or night per month, and the usual number of weekly working hours).

The results indicate that working on one or more Sundays per month substantially increases both the risk of reporting one or more health impairments (OR: 1.232, 95 % CI: 1.106 – 1.373 in EU 2000; OR: 1.460, 95 % CI: 1.279 – 1.667 in EU 2005) and a poor work-life balance (OR: 1.486, 95 % CI: 1.318 – 1.675 in EU 2000; OR: 1.593, 95 % CI: 1.383 – 1.836 in EU 2005). These effects remained after controlling for potentially confounding factors such as other work schedule attributes, the intensity of physical and mental work load, and individual characteristics. Furthermore, working on Sundays was also related to an increased risk in occupational accidents within the last year (OR: 1.283, 95 % CI: 1.119 – 1.472 in EU 2000; OR: 1.335, 95 % CI: 1.034 – 1.725 in EU 2005). Controlling again for individual, work load, and working time characteristics, a tendency for an increase in the accident risk could only be detected for working at least 1 Saturday per month (OR: 1.137, 95 % CI: 0.955 – 1.353 in EU 2000; OR: 1.394, 95 % CI: 1.013 – 1.917 in EU 2005) but not for working on Sundays. However, occupational accidents are rare events, even in large samples like these, and thus carry only a small amount of variance. It can thus be assumed that testing the effects of working on Sundays in such a strict model, e.g. including all potential confounders first – and especially work on Saturdays, which is strongly associated with work on Sundays – assigns a great amount of variance to the confounders and, thus, does not leave enough variance to be explained by work on Sundays.

Based on the results presented it can be assumed that working on the weekend, and especially on Sundays, is clearly related to impairments to employees’ safety, health, and work-life balance. This is most probably due to the interference of working time with time normatively reserved for social interaction, recreation, and recovery. The time lost for recovery due to work on Sundays might lead to an accumulation of fatigue, and thus increase the risk of accidents and health impairments, whereas the loss of socially valuable time is related to impairments of the subjective work-life balance.

A limitation of the present study is that only subjective self-reports of occupational accidents in the last 12 months, health impairments, and the quality of work-life balance were available for the analyses. Thus, recall bias, social desirability, and other potential biases of subjective reports may have influenced the outcomes, although it does not seem very probable that having had an accident might have lead to reporting working on Sundays or vice versa. Furthermore, the rather imprecise recording of the actual work schedule (e.g., using average work schedules), and the lack of information about the working hours at the time of or preceding an accident, may have contributed to the rather weak predictive power of work on Sundays for the incidence of accidents. On the other hand, the present study has several strengths: Data from two large and representative samples of the European work force were used, which allows for a generalization of the results to the population of employed workers in the European Union. Due to the large samples, even rare events such as occupational accidents were reported at a sufficient number for appropriate statistical analyses. Furthermore, strong control models have been used, indicating a clear influence of work on Sundays on health, work-life balance and partly for accident risk, even after controlling for other explanatory and confounding factors.

The results thus indicate that detrimental effects of work on Sundays on safety, health, and well-being should be taken into account when designing work schedules. These potential hazards should in particular be considered in discussions concerning extending work on Sundays in certain branches, e.g. in the retail sector.

Practical relevance

The results of this study can be used in the design of working schedules in order to reduce or minimize the risk of safety, health, or social impairments for the employees. From a business perspective this can decrease costs for employers via a reduction in time lost due to occupational accidents and illnesses. Furthermore, improving the compatibility of working hours with private commitments can increase the attractiveness of companies as employers.

Working Time in the Hotel and Catering Sector: Results of Phone Diaries

Author: Barbara Schlote-Sautter, Andreas Möltner

Keywords: working time, hotel and catering sector, trainees, computer-assisted telephone diary, flexible work

Summary

Introduction: Large percentages of trainees in Germany are trained in the hotel and catering sector. Trainees often complain about long working hours. There are only few questionnaire studies on the topic. They seem to confirm the complaints. The validity of questionnaire studies on working time has been questioned by sociologists, however. This study reports results from a flexibly applicable diary study.

Method: 63 trainees in the hotel and catering sector, cooks and hotel managers, answered a questionnaire and participated in a computer-assisted mobile phone interviews on working time, 7 days in succession. A modified time classification system by Mueller & Wyss (2007) was used. Diary entries were made every 15 Minutes.

Results: In the questionnaire, cook trainees reported to work 43.8 hours per week, young hotel managers 44 hours. Diary results had been 40.8 hours/week and 39.4 hours/week, respectively. Analyses of 144 working days of cook trainees and 141 working days of trainees in the hotel and catering sector produced the following results (over all averages; in parenthesis results of split shifts):

1. pure working time: 8.4 (8.9)hours in cooks (range 3.5-15.5 hours), 8.1 (9.4) hours in hotel managers (range: 2-12.25 hours);

2. respite: 0.8 (0.3) hours in cooks, 0.6 (0.3) hours in hotel managers

3. travel to and from work: 1 hour (1.38 hours) in cooks, 0.9 hours (1.6 hours) in hotel managers.

In average, working time per day increased from Monday till Saturday in cooks. There was no clear-cut weekly development in hotel managers. In cooks, work usually began either between 6 to 7:30 am or between 10 and 11:30 am; it ended between 12:30 am and 1:30 pm or between 10 and 23:30 pm. In hotel managers, work began between 6 am to 5 pm (some concentration in the morning), it ended between 2 and 4:30 pm or between 11:30 pm and 0:30 am. Calculations of individual work time variation per week resulted in the following medians for cooks: 1.75 hours for hours worked per day, 1 hour for begin and end of work. In hotel managers figures were 2.5, 2.5 and 3.3 hours, respectively.

Discussion: 1) Computer-assisted mobile telephone interviews were well accepted by trainees mainly because appointments for calls conformed to the demands of the trainees. Interview appointments were short and ranged between 8 am and midnight.

2) Comparisons of questionnaire results with other questionnaire studies reveal that trainees reported more hours of work per week than young workers in the hotel and catering sector and more than trainees of a questionnaire study by the German Trade Union. The average number of hours worked by cook trainees per day was between that worked by cooks in a capital city and in a tourist area during season.

3) Comparisons between questionnaire and diary results seem to confirm results of methodological studies. In addition, trainees with varying times of work seemed to have difficulties to generally evaluate their work load of the past week. This may explain why the majority of trainees preferred to give conventional answers in the questionnaire. 4) The working times monitored exhibited features of flexible work in a number of trainees, particularly in hotel managers. Long hours of work can cause physical symptoms. Varying times of work put additional strain on the physical and social adaptability of trainees. Possible effects of alterations of the Young Persons Protection of Employment Act are discussed.

Practical Relevance

This paper presents a method that facilitates the collection of data on working time aspects among individuals who work flexible hours or under time pressure. Data of this kind should be used for working time counselling or in discussions on the transition of working hour regulations.

Burnout – Implications For Prevention And Vocational Integration

Author: Dagmar Siebecke, Kurt-Georg Ciesinger, Rüdiger Klatt

Keywords: Burnout, Strain And Stress At Work, Prevention, Vocational Integration Management

Summary

Regarding occurrence of disability for work and early retirement, mental-health problems have considerably gained in importance during the last years. Burnout has become an omnipresent catchword. If we want to realise effective prevention and vocational integration we will have to clear the causes for work related mental-health problems.

Against this background the Technical University of Dortmund – within the framework of the research project „pragdis“ (preventive health protection at work for people with discontinuous careers) promoted by German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the European Social Fund (ESF) – conducted an online-survey among employees of the media and IT industry to gather information about health and emotion at work.

In addition prognoses concerning their working ability were requested. This information was contrasted with details about working conditions, given by the respondents. The device of enquiry was a questionnaire developed especially for this question. It did not consider foreign scales. 344 employees and freelancers took part in the enquiry.

Among the respondents’ health problems the mental-health problems were eminently surprising: 45% of all respondents indicated mental-health problems during the last 12 months and did not exclude that these problems were work related. Not even half of the sample – only 41% – assumed to resist the workload until retirement. Every tenth respondent answered: „Actually I would have to stop by now.“ The causes of this feeling were always mental-health problems.

The occurrence of mental-health problems correlated with different characteristics of work in a highly significant way (1% level): persons with mental-health problems often described their work task as rarely manageable and as hardly structured in an understandable way. They did not consider their assignment as rewarding and did not feel esteemed or adequately reimbursed for their work. Moreover they suffered result and time pressure. Due to the lack of separation between work and private life as well as few regular breaks their work-life balance was affected.

We could not observe an important correlation between mental-health problemes and the number of working hours. Work schedule correlated only with the mentioning of symptoms of exhaustion and a lack of regenerative powers.

The result can be interpreted in that way that it is not the quantity of work which promotes mental-health problems and burnout but that a lack of gratification, coherence and work-life balance constitute important aspects in the development of burnout.

Due to this basis, efforts of effective prevention should aim at establishing coherent working conditions – that means conditions which are regarded as appropriate and sensible, which can be applied and managed well by the employees.

These working conditions, which are beneficial to health, do not only involve conservative conditions related to employees but similarly efficient and effective conditions in the economic sense. In addition attention should be turned to the gratification conditions – especially to the esteem given to employees. Conditions of work-life balance have to be analyzed which involves boundary and coping with self-exploitation as aspects of the individual management of stress.

Concerning vocational integration important conclusions can be drawn by the interpretation of the results as well. An absolutely quantitative consideration of working hours is not satisfactory. Coherence, gratification and work-life balance are important aspects regarding mental-health problems and they have to be explicitly brought up in vocational integration interviews. The topics of vocational integration interviews should aim on working conditions which are regarded as negative, incriminating and stressing by the employee. Data protection and requirement of the protection of confidence make it difficult to approach openly the conditions, restrictions, stresses and strains.

Further need of research results from the method of collecting data. Symptoms of burnout as well as working conditions should be verified by standardised instruments of collecting data with quality criteria. The unique snap-shot of written interviews is only able to identify correlations. Long-term studies to examine and analyse causal coherences would lead to reliable results. A validated and standardised instrument of collecting burnout related data is an imperative assumption for reliable result in the burnout research. In our point of view this is an urgent need of research.

Practical Relevance

The results constitute important basic information on prevention of mental-health problems and on vocational integration after the incident of mental-health problems. Considering the essential factors of influence concerning the development of mental-health problems, prevention and vocational integration can be improved and the effectiveness of performance can be increased.

Interdisciplinary labour science – claim and reality

Author: Friedrich Fürstenberg

Keywords: Basic research, interdisciplinarity, research policy, labour process, work organization, industrial relations, life-environment perspective

Summary

Opinions on interdisciplinarity in ergonomics are discussed with reference to relevant contributions in the 01/2011 issue of Z.Arb.wiss, which focuses on this subject. In view of the broad spectrum of widely differing scientific fields interacting in this respect with ergonomics, it was decided to pool the known data on the subject, thereby giving it practical relevance. In practice, this interdisciplinarity is always complicated by a horizon of social and cultural problems, of which the attitudes adopted in the current debate on humanization of work processes is a good example. The channels, through which access to ergonomic knowledge can be obtained, are as varied as the background experience of the people involved or affected. Consequently, work is addressed as a field of research and primarily from the aspect of research interest in work as a subject. A dividing line is drawn between the basic ergonomic paradigms. Firstly, work viewed as the sum of its constituents, which can be measured experimentally by exact scientific procedures in most cases; secondly, as viewed by the persons actually doing it, whose attitudes, needs and behavior can only be analyzed by socio-cultural scientific methods. Interdisciplinary cooperation is necessary, because it is essential to apply research results holistically to the complex realities of the human work scene. Various procedures are used for this purpose.

The multidimensionality of ergonomics is evident from the various focal points that exist in that science’s core area. The starting points of interdisciplinary cooperation projects investigating problems at a number of different levels are described. Stress-strain analyses of man-machine systems are used to assess effects of work performance. Work can only be meaningfully evaluated if due allowance is made for all relevant technical, financial, social and organizational aspects with the aim of designing a best-case model integrating all these factors into a system yielding optimal productivity and profit, plus optimal job acceptance by the worker. Work in terms of the employer-employee relationship is treated as a zone of conflict. Available knowledge of perceived interests at society’s micro-, meso- and macro-levels is pooled in an effort to identify areas offering opportunities for enhanced cooperation. Finally, work as a complex reality of life is examined with the aim of achieving genuine improvements in work-related quality of life.

The core areas of ergonomics (Job analysis and design from the point of view of technical output, financial exploitation and its level of acceptance both in society and at personal level) are essentially problem areas that can only be solved by an interdisciplinary approach. This definitely does not mean, as sometimes feared, the loss of independence in the individual scientific fields involved. Their contributions remain intact. It is more a question of achieving symbiosis of the research results from the different disciplines by exchanging suggestions, and this applies particularly to joint research projects. This is only possible if the necessary degree of motivation is present. The communication network and the basic project organization must also be efficient.

Although tentative approaches to interdisciplinary ergonomics have been made in the form of reciprocal investigation of problem situations and knowledge obtained in neighboring scientific disciplines, the important task is to pool these approaches into an overall concept enabling personal identification of the scientists involved and external group presentations of the results. This will only be possible when the ergonomists openly recognize a commitment to a joint orientation framework, which will not imply any loss of independence. This could be designed along the following lines:

- Subject orientation, i.e. to the people doing the work and their interests, which makes due allowance for their valid interest in design of their jobs, in remaining healthy and not being unduly exploited, as well as helping to have these interests satisfied;

- Structural orientation, i.e. to the workplace and its demands and examination of existing physical and mental requirements and rule mechanisms with the aim of identifying potential improvements;

- Environmental orientation, i.e. to the integration of work processes into overall life situations in a way that will result in long-term improvement in these situations.

It would make sense for ergonomists as a group, in their efforts to promote interdisciplinarity, do not lose sight of the meta-objective of their accumulated knowledge: responsible involvement in design of a world of work that safeguards human dignity.

Practical relevance

The observations provide a framework for an expanded awareness of researchers and practitioners and for practical procedures for those working on complex fold-border issues.

Vol. 3 - 2011

Methods for the indication of predominant mental workload and strains at work - possibilities for the corporate practice

Author: Irina Böckelmann, Reingard Seibt

Keywords: mental stress, mental strain, measuring methods, occupational medicine, practical use

Summary

The increase in mental (psychological) stress and strain and their consequences in the modern working environment require measuring methods which facilitate a feasible and reliable acquisition of components of these assumptions in the occupational health practice. Until now conceptual and diagnostic-based prevention and health promotion for employment groups with predominant occupational mental strain have been lacking. A standardized measuring method for stress and strain is also not provided. This article intends to give an overview of the possible instruments and indicators for measurement and analyses of mental workload and strain, but also sets out to increase the awareness of the relationship between overstrain and capabilities and their possible consequences. Furthermore, the problem of conceptual haziness and its consequences for assumption assessment will be illustrated, and the ill-considered use of measuring methods prevented.

Occupational health practitioners need to recognize psychological and psychosocial stress factors (discrepancy between job demands and the possibilities for coping with these demands) in the workplace. In addition, they need to advise the employers regarding the actions and designs needed to preserve and support the health of their employees as well as how negative physical and psychological consequences can be avoided.

The new characteristic of work does not consist of combating of mental workload but in a composition that promotes health. This requires well-qualified occupational health practitioners. In addition, these practitioners should be provided with suitable and practicable investigation and analysis methods.

The mental (psychological) stress-strain-concept is examined by different scientific disciplines. In this paper, references are made to adjacent models that explain the connection between workload and illness or health, and also the connection of work-related mental workload (overstress) and its health consequences, but without claim to completeness. Mental overstress results from the work task and organization as well as the social situation at place of work. In practice and theory, these models serve as a basis for communication and action for the different actors in occupational safety and health protection and they define the theoretical frame for laws and regulations.

However, for most of these concepts the fact that occupational workload also produces positive health effects (i.e. the Job Demand Control Model: high demands and high decision latitude or the Effort-Reward-Imbalance-Model: effort and adequate rewards) it is still ignored. In the end, these concepts are measured for their ability to explain mechanisms of disease incidence and coping with demands, for their usefulness for deriving occupational health and safety strategies and their consequences for the work design. The latest risk models in occupational health and safety also implicate resources of the working process besides overstress (stressors). In the work process there are not only a lot of factors with a risk potential for health, but also many organizational, social and personal resources. These resources are considered as components of compensation and protection. Despite a risk potential, they allow for the pursuance of personal aims and to reduce negative influences.

Occupational medicine has to put the individual strain first when prevention measures are used. The individual access is one of its chances to successfully design change in the working environment. To prevent dysfunctions, diseases and performance deficits it is very important to assess the individual factors and dispositions. The complex constructs of mental stress and strain cannot be measured, but single components of them. The terms mental (psychological) stress and strain are an integral part of the so-called stress-strain-concept and are defined in the DIN EN ISO 10075. But, this definition does not suffice to address practice relevant questions. In the viewpoint of methodology there are different approaches and instruments to analyse and evaluate the components of mental stress and strain and also their consequences for health. More than five million checkups in occupational health per year are the basis to detect and to influence mental overstress in Germany. The informative potential of these checkups should be used for the individual consultation on prevention measures to a greater extent. Beside the prevention the consultations should be focused on the early diagnosis of diseases as well as on aspects of a healthy lifestyle. Valid instruments for data collection are available to measure the components of mental stress and strain (i.e. the Test-Catalogue published by Hogrefe). These valid instruments should be preferred in principle. They can be applied easily and economic by members of the Accident Prevention & Insurance Association or by company members. Experts (inter alia psychologists) and test compendia provide information about the test validity. When new instruments are developed, it is necessary to analyze their reliability and validity. Otherwise the quality of the collected data cannot be evaluated. The precedent for the selection of a certain instrument which measures stress and strain is a clearly defined and well- grounded target-setting. The selected methods must comply with the latest scientific state of knowledge and their psychometric quality criteria must be aware. Only if these standards are fulfilled, it is possible to evaluate how objective, reliable, valid, sensitive and diagnostically meaningful a measurement is.

Practical Relevance

The analysis of mental stress and overstrain at the workplace and the corresponding diagnostic-based prevention and health promotion for employment groups with predominant occupational mental workload should be strongly integrated than herefore into the occupational health-supervision of the employee. Here, the responsible worker´s board and insurance companies must bear responsibility. Research demands long-term studies from these institutions as well, to be able to reliably predict the relationship between overstrain and the development of health risks in chronological sequence.

Stress and strain associated with mobile IT-supported work: an empirical study in the area of mobile technical services

Author: Michael Bretschneider-Hagemes

Keywords: mobile ICT, stress and strain, method, prevention

Summary

Work in the information society is already characterized by a high level of penetration by information and communications technologies. The corresponding technical artefacts take the form of smartphones, laptops, WLAN hotspots, etc. At the same time, a progressive erosion can be observed of the traditional association of work with a particular location. Far-reaching changes like these to the relevant work systems imply corresponding stresses and potential for impairing strain. To date, these have been discussed only speculatively. The IFA – Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance (DGUV) conducts a variety of research into mobile IT-supported work in order to develop specific prevention solutions and to avoid workplace hazards. Current research activities primarily adopt a quantitative approach to the study of typical mobile IT-supported workplaces, and are conducted jointly with a number of partner bodies in the field. This research is intended to provide information in the future on actual hazards, which may take the form of potential impairing strain, both mental and ergonomic, caused by or associated with the use of mobile IT. The research approaches are described below and the results of the first series of quantitative studies presented in the area of mobile technical service staff (measurement and service technology). The present study represents one of the first quantitative reference points in the study of mobile IT-supported work. An established standard paradigm of the work sciences (the stress/strain model) was operationalized and applied in combination with observations in the field and interviews (method triangulation). Results were obtained for the specific fields concerned. The measurement technicians proved to be a vocational group yielding useful study results. The assumption of high mobility among these employees was confirmed, as was the diverse and intensive use of mobile IT. The concept of mobile IT-supported work can therefore justifiably be applied to this vocational group. The evaluations and observations enabled a substantial need for improvement to be identified within all the sources of strain (stresses) of the work system (The system cannot be reduced to the use of mobile IT, but interaction with the use of the technology is a permanent feature of it.). The key factors leading to impairing strain were shown not to be, for example, greater age or the daily duration of use, but the way in which mobile IT-supported work is organized (e.g. r = 0.431 in terms of work/life balance), the form taken by the working environment of mobile employees (e.g. r = 0.394 in terms of state of health), the social relationships (e.g. r = 0.312 in terms of WAI 2), and the quality and usability of the mobile IT (e.g. r = 0.329 in terms of the work/life balance). The most important individual variables were presented and related to the field. The statistical studies enabled the assessments of those consulted to be related to the findings from the field studies. At the same time, it became possible to identify probable consequences of adverse stress in the form of adverse strain (outcome), and to compare these with reference groups, at least to some extent. The need for action to improve the work situation was underlined by the employees' states of health and their work-life balance. A valuable body of data is thus available for the pending prevention work and can be used to launch the necessary changes and target them selectively. The interpretation of the results so far yields relevant, comprehensive and in some cases specific recommendations. These must be detailed and implemented in co-operation with the individuals responsible within the partner bodies in the field. In the future, mobile IT-supported work will dominate the world of work on a scale that is as yet unimaginable. The technologies subsumed under the catchword "AmI" (ambient intelligence) are also on the threshold of introduction into actual work processes or have already been introduced in specific applications, for instance in the form of head-mounted displays. These will be accompanied by further potential for strain, which can be demystified by the preliminary studies into the related subject of mobile IT-supported work. Here too, the crucial factor will be the development of research designs and design philosophies which are appropriate for a work system that is characterized by the variety of factors acting upon it. It is therefore necessary for mobile IT-supported work to be designed in a human-centric manner in all its dimensions, including the non-technical aspects. This can be achieved by holistic study and design approaches in work and social science. In order to increase acceptance for a holistic approach, the recording of quantitative data is to be continued in the future. Supplementary studies of other employee groups will be necessary for comparative evaluation of the results.

Practical relevance

The methods and results shown pave the way for design and prevention measures in the area of mobile IT-supported work and are among the first quantitative approaches in such work systems to yield information for the planning of future studies

Innovation-Competence: Development of a new construct with an explorative study

Author: Julia Verena Hardt, Jörg Felfe, Daniel Herrmann

Keywords: innovation-competence, professional competence, methodological competence, social competence, personal competence, stage model

Summary

Innovations are essential for the success of every company as innovations are the basic requirement for progress (Shalley & Gilson 2004). Many emerging companies would not have come into existence without an innovative idea (Hauschildt & Salomo 2007). Innovations are of existential importance for the maintenance of a company especially in times of crisis (Maier et al. 2007; Armbruster et al. 2005). Whether we are talking about innovations that have far-reaching consequences or make small changes in everyday procedures: these innovations are made by men (Kriegesmann & Kerka 2007; Schuler & Görlich 2007). The abilities of companies to bring out new products and keep their technical and organizational value up to date is crucially dependent on the company’s employees (Armbruster et al. 2005). The therefore necessary individual knowledge and know-how of the employees can be understood as the competence to be able to develop problem solutions or problem solution models in uncertain and complex situations. Innovation competence is the ability to generate and convert new and useful ideas. If a corporation succeeds in generating these specific competences and is able to integrate them into the corporation, the specific use of this resource will put the company in a position to achieve competitive advantages (Ridder et al. 2005). For the measurement and development of innovation competence a theoretical and empirical concept is necessary. So far, no appropriately elaborated model is available. This survey presents the new construct of innovation competence. Thereto 30 experts have been interviewed who explored the different aspects of innovation competence. By reference to the results it becomes clear that innovation competence can be sorted into a matrix structure. The first axis is composed of the phases of the innovation process (1. Problem identification, 2. Creation of idea, 3. Evaluation of idea, 4. Implementation of idea). The second axis shows the sub-competences of work-related decision-making and responsibility (expertise, methodological competence, social skills, personal competence). During the interviews it became clear that the experts brought up the sub-competences of work-related decision-making themselves. They classified the personal competence and the expertise as very important. A connection to social skills and methodological competence was established by less interviewees but still cannot be denied. In the course of the association of competences to the phases of innovation the interviewees put a lot of emphasis on expertise and personal competence in the phase of problem identification. In the following phase, the creation of an idea, all four sub-competences have turned out to be relevant for the expertise. In the third phase of the innovation process, the evaluation of an idea, expertise, social skills and personal competence play an important role. In the last phase of the innovation process, the implementation if an idea, the same patterns can be seen as in the phase of the evaluation of an idea.

Practical Relevance

The ability of companies to bring out new products depends on the innovation competence of the employees. Through the new construct innovation competence it can be made clear which individual competences employees should have to be innovative. Teams can be put together accurately so that they complement each other and implement innovative ideas successfully in the company. Furthermore, human resources manager can clearly see which sub-competences an employee already has and where development is still necessary.

Measurement of work strain: Testing subjective and objective analysis strategies at an international airport’s hub section

Author: Alexandra Michel, Karlheinz Sonntag, Katrin Noefer

Keywords: Stress, strain, burnout, subjective measure, objective measure, international airport, blue-collar worker

Summary

Aim of this study was to investigate job demands (stressors) that elicit stress reactions among blue-collar workers at an international airport’s hub section. Based on the transactional stress model (Lazarus & Folkman 1984), we developed a theoretical model to explain how work complexity, time latitude and work intermissions (stressor, respectively ‘primary appraisal’) and job decision latitude (coping strategy, respectively ‘secondary appraisal’) affect employees’ subjectively perceived emotional and cognitive strain and burnout. The following assumptions were tested: firstly, it was supposed that stressors are positively related to latitude. Secondly, it was postulated that job decision latitude in turn correlates negatively with perceived emotional and cognitive strain as well as burnout. Thirdly, it was hypothesized that there is an indirect effect between stressor and employees’ stress reactions, mediated by job decision latitude. Stressor and coping strategy were rated in two ways thereby applying a combined subjective and an objective measurement approach. First, in spring 2009 (time 1) employees evaluated the extent of work complexity, time latitude, work intermissions and job decision latitude. Then, the same measures were used to rate work complexity and latitude for the investigated workplace from a team of organisational experts consisting of an executive manager, a work and organisational psychologist, an occupational physician, a member of the workers’ council and an on the-job trainer. Both measures revealed a positive relation between work complexity and job decision latitude. Second, in summer 2009 (time 2) employees were asked to rate their levels of subjectively perceived emotional and cognitive strain and burnout. Because the sample-size for the self-reported measure was higher, and both measures were highly correlated, we used the self-reported data for further analyses. To test the fit of the proposed model, structural equation models were calculated using longitudinal data (N = 122). Results indicated adequate data fit to our proposed model and revealed that work complexity and latitude at time 1 were significantly positively correlated and latitude at time 1 and employees’ subjectively perceived emotional and cognitive strain and burnout at time 2 were significantly negatively correlated. In addition, the mediating effect of latitude could be confirmed. Subjective and objective analyses results emphasize that latitude perceived as a possibility to cope with complex work plays an important role in relation to employees’ stress reactions. Thus, in line with the transactional stress model (Lazarus & Folkman 1984), it is important to strengthen employees’ job decision latitude to be able to successfully cope with the highly complex work at the hub section of an international airport.

Practical Relevance

Applying a combined subjective and objective measurement approach it is possible to systematically analyze psychological work demands. Based upon these results it is possible to develop and accomplish interventions to reduce stressful work demands and their negative effects on employees’ health (e.g. burnout).

Algorithmic motion generation and semiautomatic ergonomics risk assessment for digital human models

Author: Ricardo Jendrusch, Wolfgang Leidholdt, Sebastian Bauer, Heike Hermsdorf, Norman Hofmann, Albrecht Keil, Birgit Spanner-Ulmer

Keywords: Digital human models, ergonomics risk assessment, motion modeling, motion simulation, motion capturing

Summary

Digital human models are presumed to be an appropriate tool for prospective ergonomic task and workplace design. Current solutions are poorly conceived regarding functional range and operating expense. Digital human simulations need to be accurate in terms of biomechanics, time, and human motor function, i.e. the simulation has to provide suitable movements and adequate postures of the human model. In this paper, a methodology to develop a software solution for algorithmic motion generation for digital human models is described. The main idea is the use of complex tasks to describe the job instead of modeling all postures by manipulating several segments to generate the motion. Thus, the user simply has to describe the work cycle in a common way, such as “assemble the part with two screws” or “go to the fixture”. The key postures for the resulting movements are created by the algorithms of the tool. Using a hierarchical system of tasks, which consists of different levels of complexity, each complex task can be ascribed to sequential steps of a lower level of complexity. As an example, the complex tasks “bolting down with an electric screwdriver”, “applying a welding gun”, “impact drilling”, or “using a compressed air pistol” can all be traced back to the elementary task “apply a tool gun”. Using motion capturing, typical working tasks have been researched by systematic variation of relevant parameters, such as working-height or direction. To provide adequate amount of typical human work tasks, the following elementary task were researched: human motions in a working environment, manual handling of objects, handling and applying of tools, and selected tasks of processing work pieces. In a first series, the tasks were performed by three different test persons, to investigate the influence of anthropometric factors on the motion characteristics. Due to the fact, that all probands were laypersons in the context of industrial manufacturing, some of their motions seemed to be not naturally and fluently. Thus, a second series was performed by a skilled worker. The captured motions were analyzed to identify characteristic motion patterns and mathematical descriptions of trajectories of the performance of industrial manufacturing tasks, which can finally be used to synthesize motions for a digital human model. The results lead into a software for planning and visualization of human working tasks. Furthermore, a function of comprehensive ergonomics assessment was developed, which enables detailed workload predictions of planned work scopes.

Practical Relevance

Early ergonomics risk assessment with digital human models serves for prospective task and workplace design. To facilitate its use also following economic aspects, new solutions for fast generation of valid motion simulations are needed. In the framework of the described research project, a tool for visualization of human tasks for early risk assessment regarding workplace measures and predicting physical stresses was developed.

Vol. 4 - 2011

Humane work in the context of inclusion - What is “good work” for people with disabilities?

Author: Vanessa Kubek

Keywords: People with disabilities, vocational participation, humane work, inclusion

Summary

The system of providing vocational participation for people with disabilities in Germany is right in the middle of a fundamental change. The political discussion is dominated by highlighting the focus on individual needs and requirements, outcome orientation or self-determination, yet without a sufficient definition of these terms. Central to the discussion is the quality of service in vocational rehabilitation. But what is the key to humane vocational participation? The ergonomics' / human factors' definition of humane work is surely a basis. However, the discussions in the context of the UN convention on the rights of people with disabilities ratification on an inclusive world of work seem to necessitate a critical reflection and extension of the current definition of humane work.

While political discussions are summarising different alternatives of participation either in the category 'good' or 'bad', research must go further towards a detailed analysis. This analysis combines both the current general principles of the paradigmatic change as well as the needs of people with disabilities. Current discussions that focus its critique on sheltered workshops for people with disabilities, however, fail due to various reasons: 1) Normative requirements for occupational participation are not sufficiently elaborated. What, e.g., is to be understood by 'integrative work'? 2) A consolidated understanding of 'good work' for people with disabilities is not existent. 3) There is no validated instrument for analysis and assessment available to look at different work places for people with disabilities, to be applicable in various institutional and organizational contexts, and which builds upon a wider general principle of humane occupational participation.

This article therefore is focusing on the following questions: How could research outcomes of ergonomics / human factors on the one hand and political discussions and normative agreements bundled together with regard to occupational participation of people with disabilities, and how could all of this result in a new general principle of humane occupational participation? Which criteria have to be taken into consideration when analysing humane occupational participation with a particular focus on inclusion? How does the findings contribute towards a standardized instrument to analyse humane occupational participation in various work setting?

These research questions are dealt with a mix of methods to achieve various aims. The first aim is to make the concept of humane occupational participation operational, embedded into a theoretical exploration. This exploration itself aims at the integration of additional aspects into the current understanding of ergonomics / human factors:

- Research findings within the context of international 'quality of working life' studies as well as of objective task observation and subjective task analysis;

- An understanding of humane work taking into account the union-based discussions on 'good work', that enriches the design of work by the design of employment relationships;

- Political / normative dimension that highlights aspects of self-determination, person centricity, social spheres and the safeguarding of societal participation through occupational participation;

- The legal framework of occupational participation in the code of social law and the call for 'inclusive work' in the UN Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities.

Based upon these theoretical explorations, empirical research was conducted to integrate the stakeholders of occupational rehabilitation into the scientific discourse. Interviews with employees with disabilities in diverse work settings allowed to match the results of the theoretical explorations with the subjective views of the stakeholders. Which aspects are of relevance to the employees, if they are asked to assess their own work? Which criteria for the analysis hence need to be of relevance? The synthesis of this matching results in a set of criteria, to be used as a basis for an instrument to analyse humane occupational participation.

Practical relevance

The reported research work is based upon the question with regard to humanity of occupational participation, an aspect raised in current discussions. Political assessments of the system to integrate people with disabilities into work are of a dichotomous nature, while a scientific base for an assessment of work places for people with disabilities does not exist yet. At the same time, the research question is of a systemic value: since years the normative discussion around the future of the rehabilitation system is lacking operational definitions of terms like inclusion, self-determination, people centricity and others. This article contributes to fill some of the gaps.

Medical Rehabilitation, Job Demands and Employment

Author: Wolfgang Slesina, Andreas Weber

Keywords: Medical rehabilitation, job requirements, functional capacity, profiling method, low back pain, myocardial infarction

Summary

Chronic diseases are often the cause of restrained physical functions and a risk concerning employability of the afflicted. Medical rehabilitation is a fundamental approach for restoration of restrained physical, mental, and psychic functional capacities and for maintenance or re-establishment of social and vocational participation of persons with handicap.

A controlled intervention trial aimed at optimizing outcomes of medical rehabilitation: firstly, by establishing an ergonomic screening-method for identification of discrepancies between rehabilitees’ job requirements and their physical functional capacities, secondly by establishing specific rehabilitation programmes directed to the reduction of these job-related discrepancies.

The study included rehabilitees with chronic low back pain and rehabilitees with myocardial infarction from three rehabilitation clinics.

By use of the ergonomic EAM-assessment method the specific job related forms of physical overstrain of the rehabilitees were identified. This was done by medical assessments of 47 different physical functions of the rehabilitees and, parallel to this, by ergonomic assessments of the corresponding 47 job requirements; the medical assessments were based on medical examinations, the ergonomic assessments were based on a combined observation-interview-method at the rehabilitees’ workplaces. By comparing the assessment profile of a rehabilitee’s functional capacity with the assessment profile of his job requirements specific forms of physical overstrain were identified. This information should have to be used by the rehabilitation-physicians for individually designed work hardening programmes aiming at closing the gap between rehabilitees’ functional capacities and their job requirements.

However, the results of the study at the end of medical rehabilitation and six months later did not show the expected effects. The rehabilitees of the intervention group did not achieve better results concerning strengthening of physical functions, the reduction of job relevant physical overstrains and the return-to-work rate than the rehabilitees of the control group. This was true for the group of rehabilitees with chronic low back pain as well as for the myocardial infarction patients. One cause of these results could be that the assessments on rehabilitees’ physical functional capacities and their job requirements had not been sufficiently converted into work hardening training.

In the last years, several programmes of vocationally oriented medical rehabilitation (VOMR) were developed and tested in orthopaedic rehabilitation. Mostly, the programmes provided a set of vocationally oriented physical, psychological and socio-educative therapies. Specific ergonomic methods like EFL or profiling methods were used as basis for the assignment of rehabilitees to a specific mix of therapies. In some studies the VOMR-programmes were evaluated by using a randomized controlled intervention design. Some positive effects were found for rehabilitees with risks of non-return to work after rehabilitation. Altogether, for this group of rehabilitees VOMR-programmes seemed to be gradually more effective concerning central rehabilitation targets like improvement of functional physical capacity, higher return-to-work rates and reduction of sick-leave after rehabilitation compared with usual orthopaedic rehabilitation programmes.

Nevertheless, it has to be acknowledged that medical rehabilitation cannot overcome all job relevant restraints of physical functions due to chronic diseases. This refers to necessary measures of health-related job design and personnel management in the enterprise.

Practical Relevance

Programmes of “vocationally oriented medical rehabilitation” (VOMR) use ergonomic methods like EFL or profiling methods for the assignment of rehabilitees to vocationally oriented physical training as well as psychological and socio-educative therapies. For specific groups of rehabilitees (risk of non-return to work after rehabilitation) VOMR-programmes seem to be gradually more effective concerning rehabilitation targets like restoration of employability and employment than in usual in-patient medical rehabilitation. Nevertheless, preventive or corrective measures of work design remain to be the primary cue for workers’ health and employability.

Vocational rehabilitation and reintegration

Author: Stephan W. Weiler, Kay-Peter Föh, Joachim Stork, Horst Mann

Keywords: Rehabilitation, disability management, reintegration

Summary

Common rehabilitation treatment aims to increase quality of life by reducing handicaps. Their high importance is expected to further increase due to the ageing population. Most of the medical rehabilitation treatments are caused by muscle skeletal complaints, lung diseases or mental diseases. From an occupational point of view the rehabilitation outcome as well as vocational reintegration is an important goal. Sick leave causes high and still increasing costs for e. g. wage continuation and therapy as well as further problems in substitution of experienced workers.

Thus it is essential to optimize rehabilitation especially regarding occupational outcome, return to work and disability. Recent reports cite in rehabilitation patients proportions between 29% to 43% with particular workplace related problems. Especially for occupationally oriented medical treatments at least some knowledge on workplace demands and concise possibilities in reintegration management could improve the situation. Most common therapists just use patients descriptions for matching disability and therapy. Thereby different types of distortion may occur: Exposures and demands can be overestimated, underreported or simply missed. Employers or occupational professionals could contribute to a more realistic approach. That results in significantly improved outcome.

Structured reintegration processes mostly focus on long-term sick leave. Those patients contribute 10% for case count but 50% for total work lost days on one hand and include the most disabled ones on the other. The most common reintegration model is stepwise reintegration (e. g. two weeks with 4 daily working hours followed by 2 weeks 6 hrs a day, afterwards normal work) which is known as ‘Hamburger Modell’ in Germany. Employees are sicklisted throughout their reintegration. Generally return to former work should be aimed. Successful return to work can be achieved for approx. 80% of the participants. Even though this model is voluntary based we recommend the use of it. Other models of reintegration are rarely evaluated: There full work days alternate with days off work or work alternates to rehabilitation treatment on a daily or hourly basis. The implementation of those models should be further evaluated.

Sustainable return to work ratio may be further improved by specifically addressing workplace factors in therapy. Because many rehabilitation patients do not know necessary details, employers can support the communication between therapists and ‘the workplace’ by very cheap and simple actions. We realized positive effects by handing over contact details regarding relevant occupational professionals (e. g. industrial physician, appropriate manager, HR dept, Disability Manager) to healthy employees, to keep those just in case of prolonged illness. Helpful data concerning workplace descriptions should be available in mostly every firm: They are needed for risk assessment, instructional purposes and planning. If documented in a structured way they can as well be used for ergonomics, CIP or identify critical workplaces. Only medium or big sized firms are able to establish own networks to therapists and rehabilitation clinics where both sides will profit from. Smaller companies are primarily suggested to establish promoters for information about possibilities, effects and regulatory framework in rehabilitation. Certified disability managers may contribute in this without high costs or need of specialized personnel.

Practical relevance

10 % of case count but 50% of total work lost days in germany are caused by long-term sicklisted employees. Promotion of reintegration is therefore not just an legal requirement but also cost effective for employers. The article shows examples for increase the successful reintegration rate.

Job design for people with restrictions in activities and participation – as means of prevention and vocational rehabilitation

Author: Petra Winkelmann

Keywords: Vocational Rehabilitation, Disability, International Classification of Functionality, Disability and Health (ICF), Job Design, Assistive Devices

Summary

In order for people with functional disorders/disabilities to participate as equals in the working world, special measures are necessary when designing a job.

According to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), the extent of a disability depends largely upon context factors. The ICF applies when it’s about describing and considering the interaction and consequences of continual, lengthy health problems. In partial classifications of the ICF, bodily functions, bodily structures, activities/participation and context factors are listed. Under the concept context factors, environmental factors and personal factors are combined.

Technical work aids belong to the most important context factors at the workplace. Technical work aids have a beneficial effect on participation in working life, in which, for example they are used by reduction or compensation of limited or failing bodily functions. By the development, selection and application of technical work aids the disabled employee should be actively included from the beginning, i.e. his or her needs, as well as preferences should be taken into account, he/she should be introduced to the professional handling and safety requirements and an assistive devices testing period should take place over a certain length of time.

The abilities and skills influenced by a disturbance of bodily functions in order to carry out a productive occupation, depends on the occurring professional requirements and workloads. Firstly, the existing abilities and skills must be compared with the professional requirements and workloads of the job. So-called profile insolvency proceedings are used for this. The results of profile comparison depicts the 1^st situation and shows where deficits e.g. where excessive demand or under challenged conditions exist. The investigated over and under capacity utilisation can through selective measures, for example, workplace design, working methods, the working environment and accessibility be eliminated. The application of technical work aids also plays a role.

The necessary experience and expertise required for workplace design suitable for the disabled is not always available in every company, therefore, in Germany it is possible, free of charge to receive external advice and support through a specialist service at the employment agency or the integration office. Included in this specialist service is also a technical advice service with its own engineers. Contact to the institutions and the construction of a network of experts usually occurs through the company’s elected representative for the severely disabled. As well as advice and support the employer also receives a subsidy towards workplace design suitable for the disabled.

In Germany, a disabled person covered by the Social Law Book (SGB) IX – rehabilitation and participation of disabled people, receives, an employer subsidy, as well as supportive advice for participation in working life, for example through the Federal Employment Agency or integration offices the Social Code IX. In Germany the appropriate subsidies originate mainly from the compensatory charge.

In addition to the supportive offers through the specialist services from the employment office or the integration office, everyone participating in vocational rehabilitation – institutions, specialists, companies, people working with the disabled and the disabled people themselves find, for example, online in the REHADAT databases: case studies, assistive devices and law under www.rehadat.de information about vocational rehabilitation. In the case studies database there are about 1,000 examples concerning the successful vocational rehabilitation of people with disabilities. For the same purpose, 22,000 assistive devices for people with disabilities are described and documented in the assistive devices database.

Documentation of the assistive devices is carried out based on DIN EN ISO 9999 assistive devices for the disabled – classification and terminology. At REHADAT, ICF has already been implemented in the areas of case studies, assistive devices and literature, in order to clearly structure information and therefore to enable future searches via ICF items.

The databases supply of information is extended through “talentplus” – a practice orientated information portal for employers and people with disabilities in working life. The special emphasis at “talentplus” lies in the processing of true-to-life questions arising from the viewpoint of employers and employees with disabilities.

Practical Relevance

Through job design much can be done to enable people with disabilities to join the working world, yet often missing in this realm is information about possible design options and personal contacts. For this reason, REHADAT (www.redadat.de) stands ready to provide job designers and ergonomists with case studies, technical assistance devices, and other additional information.

Clients’ views on the quality of vocational rehabilitation - Results of more than 10’000 interviews with persons with disabilities

Author: Annette Blaudszun-Lahm, Frank Eierdanz, Harald Weber

Keywords: Survey with people with disabilities, benchmarking, sheltered workshops for people with disabilities, co-determination, inclusion

Summary

In many organizations surveying various aspects of human work is an established element of quality management and business excellence. Numerous approved survey instruments elicit employees’ opinions and feed them into organizational development processes. However, in sheltered workshops for people with disabilities most of these instruments cannot be used, because they are – if at all - hardly suitable people with disabilities. The evaluation of work satisfaction in sheltered workshops for disabled persons is facing various challenges, which need to be considered both in the development of a suitable methodology as well as in the interpretation of the results. For instance, questionnaires should use an easy, plain language, interviewers should be carefully trained, or well known phenomena like the tendency of persons e.g. with mental disabilities to answer with “yes”, should be taken into account.

The survey instrument for persons with disabilities presented in this paper was developed to address these challenges. It is applied in a comparable form in 17 sheltered workshops within the “Reha-Benchmarking” project. The questions are phrased in a plain language. Mainly reporting instead of rating items are used, accompanied by detailed guidelines to inform and guide the interviewers. Interviews last between five and twenty minutes in average to prevent excessive demand and monotonous answering. In total, about two-thirds of all workshop employees can participate in the interview surveys, some of which are using communication aids. The results of more than 10,000 interviews show highly differentiated appraisals of different aspects by the employees with disabilities. First of all, the possibility to be able to work in the sheltered workshop is appreciated a lot, and the overall satisfaction is very high. In most workshops, employees are very satisfied with the direct care and support provided by workshop personnel. Questions on working-accompanying measures point to areas for further improvement. In some sheltered workshops for instance many employees do not even know which measures are offered or do not find trainings appealing to them. Improvements of high relevance are revealed with regard to workers’ participation and self-determination. Only half of the employees answer “yes” to questions whether they can co-decide in which group they prefer to work or which type of work they would like to do, or what they would like to learn in accompanying measures and while / through working. This implies that another 50 % perceives itself only insufficiently empowered for co-determination.

With regard to many aspects, employees’ appraisals vary considerably among sheltered workshops. Therefore, the basic idea of a comparative benchmarking – the learning from the best as a basis for a cooperative improvement of quality – is facilitated by the survey instrument introduced in this paper. An analysis of the changes of interview results after three years in six of the sheltered workshops show that it is indeed possible to improve the perceived quality. In five of these six workshops, a reasonable number of quality aspects were reported on a higher level of satisfaction in the second survey. The implementation of appropriate and reliable surveys for the target group of people with disabilities requires some efforts, but according to experiences in the Reha-Benchmarking project these efforts are paying off easily: results facilitate controlling and continuous improvement of the quality of social work and vocational rehabilitation of people with disabilities. Negative effects e.g. of changes in the complex structures of sheltered workshops can early be detected by this instrument and can be addressed in early stages. Comparison and cooperation within a network of several workshops facilitate learning from the best and support an effective quality improvement. And, finally, most employees appreciate that the survey instrument empowers them by allowing them to express their opinions. Both sides, sheltered workshops as well as employees with disabilities, have understood that the collection and further use of praise as well as of critique is an honest form of esteem and inclusion.

Practical Relevance

The results of interview-based surveys in sheltered workshops for disabled people can be used to enhance the quality of rehabilitation work in these workshops and to improve work satisfaction, participation and self-determination of people with disabilities. Relevant basics on the issue of involving disabled persons in surveys facilitate the transfer and implementation of surveys in other organizations.