Light protection equipments in office rooms

The influence of work place lighting on asthenopic complaints

Changes in office work - changes in lighting

The role of face-to-face communication in business relations based on
tele-collaboration

Action density -focussing on overlapping operations in the analysis
of complex work activities

Laboratory study on pressure distributions at car seats - examination with groups of subjects characterised by a representative distribution of body height and weight

Social action orientations and social skills in inter-organizational networks

Employment under qualification and employment appropriate to qualification level -comparison

Authors: Gunnar Sievers & Peter Kurtz

Keywords: luminance measuring · displays · illumination · ergonomics

The analysis of luminance situations in the area surrounding displays and instruments is coupled in practice with a lot of problems. The already known measuring procedures are complex and their use very demanding. Generally speaking, the necessary measuring technique is expensive and usually missing in enterprises. Therefore, a deficient design of workstations, displays and instruments cannot be identified.

The analysis system "Kalif" is a practically aligned instrument for spatial and temporal investigation and evaluation of luminance situations by recording a lighting-scenario with a video camera. A dedicated computer system evaluates either live images or tape recordings. For every point of the frame a measured value corresponding to the incidence of light is determined, which is proportional to the luminous density of the shown object.

The functions implemented in the system allow to imprint directly the measured values into the picture and over and above that

 the representation of luminance contrasts,

 luminance-profiles and

 the artificial-colour-coding of the picture corresponding to the luminous density.

All results of analysis can be stored as well as be printed in a freely configurable protocol.

Risk analysis concerning lighting situations are possible by the mean of the new procedure. Too high or too low contrast levels in the field of vision can be directly identified. Solutions for the workplace design can be developed, implemented, and compared by varying either the lightning or the arrangements at workplaces. Besides, the system is a valuable help in carrying out motivational and behavioural training for the employees. The field of application extends thereby from the design of

 visual display units over

 lighting systems for industrial workplaces and up to

 cockpits and lighting systems for traffic routes.

Especially the use of instruments with displays can be improved; The determination of contrasts and evenness of both active and passive displays (in macro- and micro-areas) takes place under the real conditions in the field. It is also possible to adjust the colour of the foreground as well as the colour of the back-
ground.

The luminance profile can be analysed time resolved by means of the time code of the video recording. The investigation of light-dark transitions and other changes of the luminance it is enabled; In this way it is also possible to study the visibility of displayed pieces of information in for example moving vehicles.

Because it gives the possibility to evaluate the lighting situations in the field, under the real conditions, the system, respectively the new procedure, contributes to the search for design and organisation solutions still on the spot.

The aim of the paper is to present a measuring procedure, that allows an undemanding analysis of luminance for displays and instruments under field conditions. Evaluations, until now considered as being difficult or even impossible (e.g., the analysis of the spatial and temporal related evenness) are in this way enabled. By the mean of the presented procedure new paths for the visual perception design including prevention are opened for the practical ergonomists.

Author: Cornelia Vandahl

Keywords: daylight · light protection · sun protection · office · visual display terminal · glare by refection

In a workroom it is always desired to have outward eye contact and simultaneously enough daylight. There are several reasons behind it. On the one hand, these conditions are necessary for the workers’ well-being; on the other hand, there are energy savings for illumination and heating. Thus, it is always tried to have as much daylight in the room as possible, although some of the results can be negative, such as direct glare by the sun, reflections on visual display terminals (VDTs) caused by window or wall luminance, and overheated rooms. Due to the above mentioned reasons light protection equipment is required. In a BAuA research project comparative investigations on ‘classic’ light protection equipment (e.g., light protection foil, vertical and horizontal slats, blinds whose primary aim is not directing the daylight) were performed. During series of tests, light protection equipment was evaluated with respect to its effects and applicability. First of all, the required viewing conditions were investigated. Primarily, this concerns luminance values which can have as consequence both direct glare and reflected glare on the VDT. As a result, threshold luminance values for different VDT classes (ISO 9241-7) were defined. Measurements were performed and test subjects were asked on horizontal, vertical and cylindrical illuminance both in real office rooms and in a field test. Especially, the interaction between daylight and artificial illumination was analysed. The test subjects were asked by means of questionnaires. If there was a good correlation between the ratings of the test subjects and the measurement data, conclusions on convenient illuminance and luminance data could be drawn by means of regression. Investigations with natural daylight in office rooms. Twenty-four test subjects were asked regarding the parameters below in a real laboratory-like room which was illuminated by daylight and in the same time photometric measurements were carried out. The windows were on the southern part of the building. In the test room a workplace with a well-coated VDT was set-up near a window (Figure 2). The position of the VDT was intentionally chosen to allow reflections on the VDT by the window behind the operator. An example of a regression between survey results and measuring data is shown in figure 3. After assessing the illumination situations, the test subjects were asked to use the type of light protection equipment which they found as being adequate. Vertical slats and blinds for both windows were available. Since the window behind the operator could cause reflections on the VDT, in most cases a protection against the sun was chosen regardless of the illumination situation. The window in front of the operator was only shaded when direct sunlight fell on the workplace. With overcast skies this window was mostly not shaded. Investigations at an artificial window. In tests with real daylight it is nearly impossible to have constant ambient conditions. For example the amount of clouds varies and the position of the sun changes. Hence, each test subject evaluates the situation under different conditions, thus making the assessment more difficult. Therefore, the following investigations were performed at an artificial window. The max. luminance of the window which could be realised was 17000 cd/m2. Table 6 shows an overview of 8 types of light protection equipment tested. All the illumination situations were evaluated by the 24 test subjects by means of a questionnaire. The mean values and the standard deviations of all assessments are shown in figure 5 and 6. The influence of the VDT polarity is obvious. Evaluation of light protection equipment at a real window. The evaluation of light protection equipment at an artificial window was possible only with restriction. Thus, for example, the outward view and glare by direct sunlight could not be evaluated. Therefore, the test subjects were asked at a real window. The test subject assessments are basically influenced by the presence/absence of the sun in the field of view. According to our expectations the evaluation of glare was influenced in this way and also the room brightness and the outward view assessment. The differences in the evaluation are shown in figure 7 and 8. Conclusions. It is nearly impossible to meet all requirements in order to fulfil all expectations. Less glare is only possible by less illuminance and less outward view. The advantages and drawbacks of the different systems are summarised below. Light protection foils: Light protection foils provide an excellent outward view. However, because they do not stray the light, there are problems with direct sunlight. The sun luminance causes glare although the transmission level of the foils is low. The low transmission provides low illuminance levels. The foils can be recommended for rooms without direct sunlight. Horizontal slats: If the position of the sun is high, the slats provide a good outward view. If the position, however, is low, they have to be closed in order to avoid glare. Slats with light direction offer a high level of illumination and avoid glare as well. Vertical slats: Workplaces with direct sunlight can be shaded by adjusting the angle of the slats, whereas there is still sufficient outward view from the other places. Due to the diffuse light transmission a high illuminance level in the room can be achieved even with closed slats. There is a certain risk of glare if the transmission level of the slat material is too high. Based on the results mentioned above there is no system that can be considered as ‘the best one’. There can be great differences even within the systems themselves. The guidelines that can be derived from the test results are as follows:

 Total illuminance: min. 500 lx

 Cylindrical daylight illuminance: 300 to 1400 lx

 Vertical illuminance towards the window: 800 to 1300 lx

 Vertical illuminance on VDT: max. 850 lx

 Permissible glare luminance for VDTs: negative polarity: class II: below 200 cd/m2, class I: 400 cd/m2 positive polarity: class II: 1000 cd/m2, class I: 2000 cd/m2

Glare by daylight is caused by high luminance values at the window. The interaction between "classic" light protection equipment an VDT classes was investigated. As a result , limits for the luminance values were defined. The results can influence the design of VDT-workplaces.

Author: Christoph Schierz

Keywords: Asthenopia · lighting · eye irritation · visual fatigue

Asthenopic complaints are symptoms of eye difficulties occurring in connection with high visual workloads. They have already been studied since the advent of fluorescent lamps in the 1950’s. Additionally the introduction of visual display terminals in the 1980’s triggered an increase in complaints about eye difficulties. Consequently, asthenopia is – and remains – an issue for scientific investigations. In this paper, results related to work place lighting of such investigations will be discussed.

Asthenopic complaints may be divided in the following three symptom complexes:

a) Eye irritations: Burning eyes, red eyes, gritty feeling, dry or tearing eyes.

b) Impairment of vision: Increased light and flicker sensitivity, blurred or veiled vision and doubled images.

c) Cerebral impairments: Headache, fatigue and dizziness.

To register the symptom frequency, subjective methods such as questionnaire surveys have been used. Additionally, several physiological investigations to objectify the complaints, have been tried, but with limited success. For instance, a raise of the asthenopic symptom frequency could be associated with a reduction of the eye’s accommodation width and velocity. However, psychological factors like the social climate or work place satisfaction may as well influence the impairment perception.

Difficulty and duration of the visual task, individual factors like vision defects and lighting parameters, are possible causes of asthenopic complaints. Lighting level, high contrasts in the field of view as well as flicker and the spectral distribution of the light are discussed. Increased illuminance may enhance visual efficiency and extends the depth of focus due to a reduction of the pupil diameter. Thereby the strain of defocused vision may be reduced.

It has been shown that there is a relationship between high luminance contrasts in the field of vision, increase in visual complaints, and temporary increase of myopia. Since it is known that prolonged vision to proximal objects gives rise to temporary myopia, it may be conjectured that people avoid relaxing sight directions to surrounding areas with high contrasts. However, investigations into how lighting parameters affect the frequency of sight directions, have rarely been carried out.

Some investigations showed an increased frequency of eye irritations with flickering light. This problem can be avoided by the utilisation of high frequency control gears. A connection between light spectra and complaints could be disproved in some of our own investigations. Since lighting as a part of visual interior design also influences psychological factors, it may be expected that it also affects the perception and appraisal of asthenopic impairments.

Recently there has been a growing interest in associations between light and health at the work place. This contribution summarises the present scientific knowledge about the influence of indoor lighting systems on visual impairments. It can be concluded, that a suitable design of light distributions contributes to the preservation of individual well-being and efficiency.

Author: Sylke Neumann

Keywords: lighting of work stations with visual display units · soft and hardware · desks · office area design and organisation forms for office work

The office work conditions have changed continuously during the recent period of time. Our service-oriented society demands a high degree of flexibility and creativity while carrying out the work tasks. We have the possibility to communicate, to exchange data and to collect information by the mean of intra- and internet; all these enables us to carry out office work in a flexible manner, both in terms of time and location. For this reason new forms of organisation of office work have been introduced in recent years, which have been extended by new work space designs and contemporary furnishing solutions. Adequate lightning designs should complete this development process.

The following points are important in order to plan the lighting:

 The anti-glare level and the type of visual display (positive or negative)

 The type of furnishing and

 Work space designs and forms of organisation.

According to the level of anti-glare (DIN EN ISO 9241-7) and the type of visual display, the BGI 650 and the draft of Standard E DIN 5035-7 specify luminance restrictions for lights and surfaces, which could be reflected onto the screen. Consequently, the average luminance for most screens currently on offer should not exceed 1000 cd/m² for positive display (dark text on a light background) and 200 cd/m² for negative display (light text on a dark background). It must therefore be assumed that a negative display will be preferred, particularly for CAD and graphics applications. Since a quite long period of time, desks made up of a combination of linked units have been successfully used in offices where work involves several related activities. In recent years, desks with so-called free-form surfaces, as well as desks and other furniture on castors have also been used.

The working surface of the desk must be at least 1600 mm x 800 mm or 1.28 m² in size, in accordance with Standard DIN 4543-1. For example, where work is carried out exclusively on a visual display, the work surface can be reduced to a minimum size of 1200 mm x 800 mm or 1.28 m². There must be a user surface of at least 1000 mm in depth on the desk. Work space and user space together produce the working area, which must be lit to at least 500 lux.

If the position of the work areas within the office space is known, the lighting can be set up according to it and adapted to the space. If there are some tasks which are more demanding in terms of vision, it would make sense to light parts of the area with significantly higher luminance (at least 750 lux) over and above the work station lighting. The staff members will then be able to adjust the lighting situation to their personal requirements more effectively.

The positioning of the visual display, the arrangement of the work stations in the space and the location of the working areas and passageways depend on the size and design of the desk surfaces. New designs for organisation and office space require careful lighting planning. Suitable lighting solutions can be developed if the interplay of tasks, equipment and organisation is taken into account.

The combi-office: The lighting in offices which are split into uniform, fixed, furnished offices can be adapted precisely to the working area (desk and space for movement) and can also be designed for the various related surfaces. In the communal area, the lighting should also promote communication. The lighting solution for these areas must also meet the technical lighting requirements for the individual functions, i.e. filling, photocopying etc. As most of the dividing walls in combination offices are partially or full glazed, the lighting solutions should be co-ordinated for both areas, with regard to their technical lighting and design features.

The variable office: In larger premises, work stations and dividing walls can be arranged around the furniture and structural elements using castors, in order to achieve a favourable grouping for the work currently being carried out, i.e. work in project groups or working alone. The lighting must therefore provide equally good conditions throughout the entire office space. Lights linked to the work stations can be added to the basic lightning.

Call Centres: Work stations in the call centre can be arranged in line, ring or star formations. These work station groups can be put together with working areas for which the lighting is adequate adapted. In the same way, the passageway areas in most Call Centres are predetermined, so that the lighting can be planned specifically for this. Call Centres often involve shift working. Therefore, individual or dimmer lights, for example, can enable the staff members to adapt the light to their changing requirements during the day. Light management systems (dynamic light) are also conceivable.

Office at home: The technical lighting and ergonomic requirements apply here in the same way as for work stations in companies. The employer is responsible for the maintenance of the technical lightning arrangements. In particular, the requirements of the staff members must be analysed in planning the lighting, so that the layout does not conflict with the domestic character of the space and the member of staff should be included in the selection of lighting, as far as possible.

The contribution addresses the following important points for the planning of lighting

 The level of anti-glare and type of screen display (positive or negative display),

 The type of furnishing and

 Designs for office space and forms of organisation.

Authors: André Büssing & Claudia Moranz

Keywords: Trust · tele-cooperation · face-to-face communication · subjectifying work action · sensory perception

Traditional hierarchical structures are not efficient any longer if we think that the industrial society undergoes transformations due to transition into the information age. In highly complex environments with increasing levels of market uncertainty strategies of networking and co-operation become more and more important. Because of heterogeneity and diversity of information-related services one single company can hardly fulfil customers’ expectations. Therefore, many companies manifest themselves as dynamic networks. Organisations with business processes based on tele-collaboration mostly renounce formal contractual guarantees as co-ordination mechanism in order to ensure overall flexibility. As a consequence, trust becomes a decisive factor for success.

Eleven members of service companies with relevant experience took part in exploratory interviews. The aim of the interviews was to examine the development of trust in the initiation phase of business relationships based on tele-collaboration, where the selection of potential co-operation partners as well as trust building are essential. Therefore, we focused on the initial formation of trust, which is based neither on any kind of experience with, nor firsthand knowledge of another party. An additional issue was how trust can be maintained during tele-collaboration.

The findings support mostly the model of initial formation of trust elaborated by McKnight, Cummings and Chervany (1998). This implies that we could reveal equivalents for the three basic constructs of the model: disposition to trust, institution-based trust and cognitive processes. Especially reliability, professional competence, predictability, a good (transparent) quality of communication and honesty are, in line with the respondents, important for building and maintaining trust in business relations based on tele-collaboration. One essential deviation from the model was the statement of interviewees that trust can be build or not as a consequence of a more diffuse and not really tangible feeling. During the co-operation the interviewees emphasise the necessity of face-to-face communication for trust maintenance. These aspects concerning the personal contact between partners can be explained by means of single elements of the subjectifying work concept.

Basically, the results do not indicate that building up and maintaining trust is difficult or even impossible in the context of tele-collaboration but they enforce the connection between trust and personal interaction or conversation. It seems neither realistic nor useful that personal contact can be widely or even totally replaced by means of modern information and communication technology.

Our investigation shows a large, coherent and valid picture of the functioning of initial trust in business relations based on tele-collaboration. However, a follow-up study with a larger sample-size seems to be useful in order to get wider applicable solutions.

Especially in organisations where business processes take place mostly via electronic information and communication technologies trust is a decisive factor for success. The presented study gives hints for the initiation of business processes supported by tele-collaboration in order to ensure the trust formation.

Vol. 5 - 2003

Action density -focussing on overlapping operations in the analysis of complex work activities (Vol. 5 - 2003)

Authors: Tanja Manser, Theo Wehner & Marcus Rall

Keywords: action density · action sequences · complex work systems · observation method ·
anaesthesiology

Summary

Administering anaesthesia is a complex task in which human error can have disastrous consequences. In order to provide a sound basis for anaesthesia systems design as well as for improvements in education and training of anaesthetists an improved understanding of the nature of the anaesthetists' clinical practice is needed. Thus, we strive for a detailed description  of the anaesthetists' clinical behaviour by investigating action sequences during the administration of anaesthesia.
Previous time and motion studies have all faced the methodological problem of recording and  interpreting co-occurring events that can be regarded as a core characteristic of anaesthetic practice. This study, however, aims to counter this problem by applying a new observation method, sensiti-ve to overlapping operations in action sequences. Consequently, our inquiry into action sequences in anaesthesia focuses on their operational composition leading to the identification of different patterns in action density (i.e. a measure to describe the extent to which total activity and particular operations fluctuate during a specific anaesthesia case).
To overcome the problem of recording and interpreting co-occurring events we used a computer-based recording technique that enabled the observing work psychologist to record action sequences on line in the operating theatre. A set of 41 observation codes has been used, each of them representing a single operation. The dimensions structuring this set of codes are monitoring, manual tasks, communication, documentation and additional operations not belonging to the anaesthetists' primary task.
Process-oriented case analysis, based on 23 cases representing a broad spectrum of surgical and anaesthesia procedures, shows that action density exhibits a characteristic and distinct distribution during the application of anaesthesia. For example, periods characterised by increased action density are the induction of and the emergence from anaesthesia. Moreover, throughout most cases involved in this study, the percentage of time spent on monitoring operations increased during the maintenance of anaesthesia, as compared with the induction of, or the emergence from anaesthesia, whereas the percentage of manual measures taken was lessening during that phase.
Finally, overlapping operations seem to have a central position when dealing with the various requirements related to the occurrence of unexpected events.

This study supports the descriptive validity of the observation method used, as well as of action density as an indicator for the occurrence of overlapping operations. Firstly, our study provides evidence that the method proposed here to observe overlapping operations in action sequences in a complex, clinical setting is feasible. Secondly, the results show that there is a reasonable amount of overlapping operations neglected by conventional observation methods. As described in literature on the organisation of multiple actions on an indi-vidual or group level, concurrent actions may occur due to increased task complexity. By drawing an analogy overlapping operations in action sequences may be interpreted as an indicator for coping with complexity varying during different phases of an anaesthesia case.

Practical Relevance

To assure patient safety and the quality of health care in an increasingly complex health care system an in-depth understanding of medical activity is crucial. Analysing action sequences applying the method described opens up new possibilities to derive design implications (e.g. concerning work processes) on an empirical basis.

Laboratory study on pressure distributions at car seats - examination with groups of subjects characterised by a representative distribution of body height and weight
(Vol. 5 - 2003)

Authors: Barbara Hinz, Helmut Seidel, Gerhard Menzel, Jürgen Keitel & Lutz Gericke

Keywords: Car seats · pressure distributions · models · anthropometry · seat cushion · backrest

Summary

Background. Up to now the pressure distributions at the contact areas between the car driver and the seat have not been examined sufficiently. They are needed for a better understanding of the effects of whole-body vibration occurring at many work places.
Missing representative data make it more difficult to improve dummies that are increasingly used for seat testing (ISO 10326, 1994) and conform to ISO 5982 (1993). According to ISO 5353 (1995) the contact area of buttocks is represented by a non-realistic, nearly flat surface of the device for seat index point (SIP) determination that is also used as interface of dummies.
Representative data for a better modelling of the man-seat cushion-interaction are missing. The authors could not ascertain reliable data on the normal variability of static pressure distributions and possible differences caused by gender. The experimental study aimed at examining the effects of seat type (three car seats of different manufacturers S1, S2, S3; one hard laboratory seat HS with a soft backrest), gender and anthropometric characteristics on static pressure distributions at the seat and backrest with a constant posture. For the sake of a  broad applicability, the distribution of body height and body mass of female and male subjects should reflect the distribution of the general German population.
Methods. 23 males (M) with a body mass from 58.2 to 106 kg (mean value Mw 76.9 kg) and body height (Kph) from 160.0 to 186.9 cm (Mw 176.5 cm) and 22 females (Kpm 51.5 - 84.1 kg, Mw 64.3 kg; Kph 154.0 - 175.0 cm, Mw 163.1 cm) volunteered for the study.  Figure 1 shows the distribution of subjects in classes corresponding to percentiles of the general population (Greil, 1988). 25 anthropometric characteristics were obtained with the subjects either standing (13) or sitting (12). The body mass index and the weight-to-height ratio (WHR) were determined. During the experiments the subjects were sitting in a relaxed convenient posture, using the backrest and placing the hands on their thighs. The pressure distributions were measured with a pliance system (pressure sensing mats and analysers by novel, Munich) on the seat (32x32 sensors) and at the backrest (16x16 sensors).
The resulting forces (seat - FZ; backrest - FX), the contact areas (seat - KfS; backrest - KfR) and the maximum pressure (seat - DS; backrest - DR) were determined. Reflective markers at well-defined positions were used for a quantitative description of body posture (Figure 2) and measurement of angles between body parts (Figure 3) by means of a motion analysis system (Qualisys, Sweden).
Results. FZ was larger for men than for women and for HS than for S1, S2 and S3. KfS was significantly smaller for HS than for S1, S2 and S3, the differences of KfS between men and women were small except from S3. The maximum DS of HS exceeded significantly those of S1, S2 and S3, they were larger for men than for women (cf. Figure 5). The parameters examined did not exhibit considerable differences for the backrest with different seat types. Table 1 shows the results of the analyses of variance with respect to the effects of seat type, gender and their interaction on FZ, FX, KfS, KfR, DS and DR. Gender-dependent significant differences were observed between Mw of FZ, the maximum DS and three postural angles (Table 2). FZ, FX, KfS and KfR could be predicted by multiple regression equations (stepwise variab-le entry and removal) with Kpm and WHR as the variables mainly contributing to the prediction. Different variables were important for the prediction of DS and DR. Linear regression equations using only Kpm or WHR are listed in the Annex (Tables A1- 2).
The force profiles in the sagittal plane generally exhibited distinctly smaller and higher peaks for HS than for S1-S3 in the area of the ischial tuberosities. With women, these profiles revealed less distinct peak forces in this area, but somewhat higher forces under the thighs than those of men. The sagittal force profiles showed higher FX exerted by female subjects on the lower part of the backrest. Discussion and Conclusions. The force profiles illustrated significant differences of pressure distributions depending on gender. The linear correlations with body mass and WHR resembled those described by Wu et al. (1998). We suppose that different anthropometric length measures of men and women caused different sitting postures indicated by significantly dif-ferent angles, in spite of an individually adjustable distance of the feet support with constant sitting height and depth. The representative set of data obtained can be used for a more detailed modelling of the contact area man-seat. Thus, the mean pressure distribution of the 50th percentile was used to derive an improved geometry for a model (Figure 12) to describe the buttocks (Cullmann 2002, Ruetzel et al. 2002) that differs considerably from that in ISO 5353 (1995). Static pressure distributions obtained for hard seats cannot be applied to car seats with cushions. Gender-related differences and the between-subject variability should be considered with the future development of models. The results also suggest the necessity to examine the effect of the quality of the contact area on human biodynamics during exposure to whole-body vibration.

Practical relevance

The seat design is a very important factor for an ergonomic design of the driver workplaces in cars. Comprehensive knowledge of pressure distribution at the human-seat interface can contribute to an optimization of the seat design and to the improvement of mathematical models and dummies, used in seat tests.

Social action orientations and social skills in inter-organizational networks
(Vol. 5 - 2003)

Authors: Wolfgang G. Weber, Carsten Ostendorp & Theo Wehner

Keywords: enterprise networks · cooperation · social skills · prosocial behavior · knowledge
management

Summary

There has so far been little research into the relationships and contradictions that exist between social skills, the characteristics of a company, and the socio-economic context of different types of company networks. A precondition for this is the conceptualization and validation of social action orientations.
Based on a consideration of its roots stemming from social science (Geulen 1982, Habermas 1983, Powell 1996), from developmental psychology (Kohlberg 1996, Selman 1984), and from work psychology (Hoff et al. 1991), the construct of social orientation was differentiated and adapted for a description of actors' motives and readiness to cooperate within interorganizational networks. The above-mentioned authors see perspective-taking and communication as central psychological means of enabling participants to coordinate their motives and cognitions to such an extent that it results in cooperation.
Social action orientations in the context of inter-organizational cooperation refer to motive- related readiness for goal-directed action on the part of participants at different stages of interaction in cooperative activities (situation-related action), in the context of economic organizations, and their socio-economic environments. Social action orientations can be placed along a potential scale with selfish motives at one ex-treme, and prosocial motives at the other. They encompass eight different features of actors' readiness to act within organizational cooperations related to social skills and social motives. Drawing on the aforementioned authors and on our own concepts (e.g. Weber 1997, 1998, Wehner et al. 1996), we propose a construct called "perspective taking at a higher level". This form of perspective taking constitutes one out of the central features of social action orientations. We observe a specific human ability, including legitimate action maxims, to take into consideration social, ecological, economic and socio-economic matters of concern, even when those matters go beyond the immediate situation of the interaction and are far-reaching over time. Social action orientations of 21 representatives (directors, innovation managers, and personnel controllers) from 13 Swiss enterprises who weighed up their participation in a new network of inter-organizational idea management were identified with focussed interviews. Unlike virtual enterprises, a new network called "Sonet" (http://www.sonet-Schweiz.ch) was designed for the non-monetary, voluntary exchange of immaterial and material ressources as well as for collective solving of technological, organizational, personnel, and environmental problems. The tensions between cooperation and competition within such an inter-organizational network for exchange of ideas offers a suitable focus for investigating social action orientations.
The  computer-based ATLAS/ti instrument was used for qua-litative content analysis of the interview data. The aim of this content analysis was to test a theoretically derived, preliminary typology, extending and correcting it inductively. In revison of this first, theory-derived typology, four types of social action orientations were found: (I) egocentric-utilitarian orientation, (IIa) economically-shaped exchange orientation, (IIb) social-exchange orientation and, (IV) mutualistic-prosocial orientation. These types differed regarding to the degree of direct perspective-taking, to taking socio-economic consequences of behavior into consideration, to readiness for cooperation and readiness to contribute to collective resources. Additionally, they differed with regard to the actors' attitudes toward cooperation with competitors, to their perspective of network evaluation and in the bases of trust. Company- pecifically, results show a strong positive or ne-gative interest in inter-organizational cooperation of the company-representatives (128 passages out of 393 altogether).
Aspects of higher level perspective taking, i.e. taking economic interests into consideration, were thematised surprisingly frequent as either affirmative or negative (87 passages). Type I, egocentric-utilitarian orientation, was not found in definite shape. Further hybrid forms of action  orientations did occur and not all theoretically expected features were found. Some of the participants each showed different types of orientations dependent on specific form or aspects of networks and on former contextual experiences.
The action orientations of the participating company representatives demonstrate a means-  and-ends relationship.  In the context of an economy that acts mainly on the principle  of competition, it is unlikely that the participants' actions should only follow a social line of exchange, or a mutual-prosocial orientation. It is to be expected, in certain circumstances, that the readiness to act selfishly in a network cannot be avoided for "survival of the firm" reasons, even on part of representatives of the four humanitarian-social or collectivistic enterprises within our study. The results of this exploratory study have led to the hypothesis that action orientations should not be considered as fixed personal traits but as situative, subject-specific facets of social orientations.

Practical Relevance

Experts from the business world and organizational researchers emphasize the importance of  social skills, of competencies to work in a team and of a organizational trust culture for successful inter-organizational cooperation. Thus, findings of this study refer to work and organizational psychological problems influencing the success of networks for the exchange of  ideas or of innovation networks. s exist.

Employment under qualification and employment appropriate to qualification level -  comparison (Vol. 5 - 2003)

Authors: Bärbel Bergmann & Falk Richter

Keywords: Job and organizational design · motivation · self-organized learning · employment under qualification

The development of employee's competences at all organizational levels becomes more and more relevant to competiveness and success of companies. But the opportunities to develop competence by learning at work differ in a substancial way. This is especially relevant considering a comparison of traditional employment and new forms of employment: for example temporary employment, short-time employment and employment under qualification. Changes in the employee's world include a decline in importance of profession as an orientational figure in biographical arrangements. Not only successful careers exist but also downgrading. A growing proportion of employees experiences interruptions within their professional biographies.
For example people are employed to do jobs that are situated under their qualification level.
A comparison of labour situation, job related motivation and assessments of abilities of employees were carried out in two groups. Employees with qualified jobs and employees with jobs under their qualification level were compared. Subjects were working persons with university degree - 404 working in jobs situated at an appropriate level and 34 with jobs under their qualification level. All were asked to assess their tasks and organizational characteristics, intrinsic motivation and their abilities. The following characteristics of labour situation were analyzed: Decision latitude, task variety and transparency of information flows and feedback, possibilities to participate, time for learning, acknowledgement of autonomous acting and possibilities to develop. So learning demands related to working tasks and corporate culture were described. Intrinsic motivation is analyzed with instruments to assess activities in self organized learning, self efficacy and demands on job design. Further the abilities in the form of the self concept of competence were described - the self-concept of professional knowledge, the self-concept of methodical abilitites and the self-concept of social abilities.
The comparison of learning demands in working situation, of work-related motivation and of the self-concept of competence was realized using MANOVA. Employees with jobs under their qualification level show lower degrees of learning demands in their work and lower degrees of job related motivation. The findings content a covariation of characteristics of labour situation and motivation. Further negative correlations exist between the duration of an employment under qualification on the one hand and the employee's demands on job content and the activities concerning self-organized learning on the other hand. So the results show a relationship between work situation and indicators of work-related motivation. The self- oncept of competence of persons who are employed appropriate to their qualification level does not show differences to the self-concept of competence of persons who are employed under their qualification level. These assessments take place in relation to the concret demands of working tasks. These are lower in employments under qualification. The findings confirm the expectation of a covariation of job content and characteristics of motivation.

Practical Relevance

Practical consequences concern the task design and design of corporate culture and organization in companies. In Work and Organizational Psychology work characteristics are described as a relevant predictor of motivation. Intrinsic motivation cannot be stored but can only be recreated by coping with challenging tasks and learning promoting culture of organizations. Learning demanding jobs which are characterised by decision latitude, a variety of tasks and transparent flows of information are responsible for the development of motivation. Therefore, motivation does not only depend on the person but also on job design and the learning culture of organizations. High motivation is a precondition for self organized learning at work and this is a precondition for employability. Check lists for job design and the  design of learning culture in companies exist.